Annotated Bibliography

Findings, Perspectives, and Uses of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory

February 17, 2023

Auster, D. (1965). Attitude change and cognitive dissonance. Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), 2, 401–405. DOI: 10.2307/3149488

The purpose of this article was to investigate the results of a controlled experiment involving groups of people shown "ideological" and "technological" propaganda videos and to analyze a paradoxical finding involving cognitive dissonance. The ideological videos were found to be more effective than the factual, technological videos through examining the participants’ negative or positive reactions to the videos. Using the various opinion changes and audience reactions to the contrasting answers to a preliminary questionnaire, this study was able to report a reasonable theoretical explanation for the results through the use of cognitive dissonance. The theory of cognitive dissonance was used in the research when examining the paradox between the participants’ preliminary questionnaire responses in comparison to both their influences and general enjoyment of these videos. Overall, this article provided empirical evidence through a specific experiment done and analyzed through the viewpoint of the overwhelming paradoxical cognitive dissonance involved when one dislikes material, but is still significantly impacted by it. 

Connole, R. J., Benson, J. D., & Khera, I. P. (1977). Cognitive dissonance among innovators. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 5, 9. DOI: 10.1007/BF02721994

This article focuses on a study discovering whether a specific type of consumer- an innovator- experiences any sort of dissonance after the purchase of a product that differs from other popular brands. These innovators are experienced in this product field and have the time and resources to be involved with this product. Through comparing innovator and non-innovator consumers in this study through interviews, it was revealed that innovators were more heavily involved in researching information about the various types of automobiles, making their connection to the product and its success stronger. When that positive connection failed or struggled, innovators were more likely to experience that cognitive dissonance of buyers remorse. Through examining cognitive dissonance in this research, it was revealed that consumers could potentially avoid additional information after making a decision in order to prevent any sort of negative feelings of buyers remorse. Consumers could also want to reinforce their decision by researching and finding positive aspects of their product, making that cognitive dissonance possibility even more likely when eventually experiencing disappointment with the product. 

Hawkins, D. I. (1972). Reported cognitive dissonance and anxiety: Some additional findings. Journal of Marketing, 36, 63-66. DOI: 10.2307/1251043

The author of this article, Hawkins, examines Professor Oshikawa’s recent article pertaining cognitive dissonance. Hawkins critiques this article, suggesting there is more than one way to view dissonance. Using a different lens, cognitive dissonance measurements could actually be used to measure chronic anxiety instead of assuming a temporary association between the two. Using the scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventor (STAI) and other research, measurements were able to be collected about both chronic and temporary anxiety. This method was successful in approaching these different questions of chronic versus temporary anxiety. The central idea that Hawkins found was that this anxiety dissonance depends on both the individual and the situation, making it variable. Cognitive dissonance was used in this research when examining the different levels of anxiety that someone might feel, leading one to believe that cognitive dissonance is not a one-size-fit-all theory. In different situations, different people will have different experiences and levels of that discomfort involved with cognitive dissonance.

Spangenberg, E. R., Sprott, D. E., Grohmann, B., & Smith, R. J. (2003). Mass-communicated prediction requests: Practical application and a cognitive dissonance explanation for self-prophecy. Journal of Marketing, 67, 47–62. DOI: 10.1509/jmkg.67.3.47.18659

This article’s purpose is to examine the “self-prophecy effect,” where influencing the behavior of a person through having them unconsciously make a self-prediction before an experience. The authors show this idea through the viewpoint of marketers and their products, where if they promote a certain idea before the customer experiences the product, they might be more satisfied with the results. Supporting other research, they assert that self-prophecy is a manifestation of cognitive dissonance, where expectations can influence satisfaction. Through utilizing five different studies, they were able to use various methods including measuring recycling behaviors, health and fitness memberships, willingness to donate to charities, and conducting paper and pen laboratory questionnaire experiments. This self prophecy effect influenced both mass marketing communications and cognitive dissonance, with a direct effect of cognitive dissonance on purchasing decisions. Overall, this article is useful in explaining an influence in socially normative behaviors in different marketing and product strategies, and it can be applied to anyone who wants to influence expectations and satisfaction of another person. 

Vico, S. (2022). Cognitive dissonance in social media and face-to-face interactions in relation to the legacy of war. International Journal of Communication, 16, 5739–5758.

Summary of the research question or purpose of the article: This article focuses on postconflict societies and their need to recognize and acknowledge ingroup responsibility and outgroup suffering, especially through the use of cognitive dissonance. Vico and other scholars claim that an attitude shift can only happen through experiencing cognitive dissonance and seeing their inconsistent views and behaviors. Examining both psychological and social triggers, cognitive dissonance experiences could occur depending on certain environments and interactions. This hypothesis is pursued through studying interactions on social media sites like Facebook and Twitter in comparison to in person interactions. Through utilizing methods of focus groups, discourse analysis, research ethics, and deep analysis about past war crimes, researchers were able to find that longer, more engaged interactions, like in-person groups, were more likely to have cognitive dissonance experiences. This back and forth communication with more information and deeper understanding causes those levels of discomfort where people finally acknowledge the disconnect. On social media, cognitive dissonance is not experienced as often, according to this study, because of the large amount of new, shallow information that is not discussed. As a result, cognitive dissonance is more likely to occur when a topic is discussed further into detail. In order to create any sort of influence or change, one must have that dissonance confirmation.